1932
0
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Annual Review of Sociology
  4. Volume 49, 2023
  5. Article

Annual Review of Sociology

Volume 49, 2023

Diverging Destinies in East Asia

Abstract

Research on diverging destinies provides a compelling and influential framework for understanding relationships between socioeconomic bifurcation in family behavior and inequality within and across generations. Articulations of the diverging destinies framework stress its broad relevance for low-fertility societies, but empirical evaluations in East Asia are limited. We address this gap by summarizing and synthesizing scholarship on socioeconomic differentials in family behavior and relationships between family circumstances and children's well-being in mainland China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. We seek an understanding of how and why the diverging destinies framework is or is not helpful for understanding family change and inequality in societies characterized by a highly asymmetric gender division of labor, strong emphasis on family investment in children, and limited public support for families. This article provides a contextual and empirical basis upon which to build subsequent research on family change and inequality in East Asia.

Keyword(s): children, diverging destinies, East Asia, family, gender, inequality
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-020321-032642
2023-07-31
2024-04-29
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/soc/49/1/annurev-soc-020321-032642.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-020321-032642&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Akabayashi H, Nakamura R, Naoi M, Shikishima C. 2016. Toward an international comparison of economic and educational mobility: recent findings from the Japan Child Panel Survey. Educ. Stud. Jpn. 10:49–66
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Bauer J, Wang F, Riley NE, Zhao X. 1992. Gender inequality in urban China: education and employment. Mod. China 18:333–70
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Brinton MC 2001. Married women's labor in East Asian economies. Women's Working Lives in East Asia MC Brinton 1–37. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Brinton MC. 2010. Lost in Transition: Youth, Work, and Instability in Postindustrial Japan Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  5. Brinton MC. 2022. [The Constrained Japanese] Tokyo: Chūō Shinsho (In Japanese)
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Brinton MC, Lee D. 2016. Gender-role ideology, labor market institutions, and post-industrial fertility. Popul. Dev. Rev. 42:405–33
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Brinton MC, Oh E. 2019. Babies, work or both? Highly educated women's employment and fertility in East Asia. Am. J. Sociol. 125:105–40
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Byun S, Kim K 2010. Educational inequality in South Korea: the widening socioeconomic gap in student achievement. Res. Sociol. Educ. 17:155–82
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Chen C, Tsai C, Sung F, Lee Y, Lu T et al. 2010. Adverse birth outcomes among pregnancies of teen mothers: age-specific analysis of national data in Taiwan. Child Care Health Dev 36:232–40
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Chen W. 2016. The role of grandparents in single-parent families in Taiwan. Marriage Fam. Rev. 52:41–63
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Chen W, Duan Y. 2019. [Recent levels and trends of fertility in China]. Popul. Res. 43:3–17 (In Chinese)
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Chen Y. 2006. Housing and single mothers in the KMT regime of Taiwan, 1949–2000. Geogr. Res. Forum 26:93–114
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Chen Y, Fan X 2019. Subjective social status, income inequality and subjective perceptions of mobility (2003–2013). Soc. Sci. China 40:70–88
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Chen YC, Fan E, Liu JT 2019. Understanding the mechanisms of parental divorce effects on child's higher education NBER Work. Pap. 25886
  15. Cheng YA. 2014. Changing partner choice and marriage propensities by education in post-industrial Taiwan, 2000–2010. Demogr. Res. 31:1007–42
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Cheng YA. 2016. More education, fewer divorces? Shifting education differentials of divorce in Taiwan from 1975 to 2010. Demogr. Res. 34:927–42
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Cheng YA. 2020. Ultra-low fertility in East Asia: Confucianism and its discontents. Vienna Yearb. Popul. Res. 18:83–120
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Cho M, Yoon S. 2014. [Changing differences by educational attainment in fathers’ family work: domestic labor and child care]. Korean J. Fam. Soc. Work 44:5–30 (In Korean)
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Choe MK, Kim SK. 2007. Pregnancy wastage among married women in South Korea. Asian Popul. Stud. 3:37–55
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Choi S, Byoun S, Kim EH. 2020. Unwed single mothers in South Korea: increased vulnerabilities during the COVID-19 pandemic. Int. Soc. Work 63:676–80
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Cui Y, Liu H, Zhao L. 2019. Mother's education and child development: evidence from the compulsory school reform in China. J. Comp. Econ. 47:669–92
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Exec. Yuan 2022. Key gender statistics database Database, Exec. Yuan Taiwan: https://www.gender.ey.gov.tw/gecdb/
  23. Fukuda S. 2020. Marriage will (continue to) be the key to the future of fertility in Japan and East Asia. Vienna Yearb. Popul. Res. 18:71–80
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Fukuda S, Raymo JM, Yoda S. 2020. Revisiting the educational gradient in marriage in Japan. J. Marriage Fam. 82:1378–96
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Fukuda S, Yoda S, Mogi R. 2021. Educational assortative mating in Japan: evidence from the 1980–2010 census. J. Popul. Stud. 57:1–20
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Gao J, Zheng X. 2021. [Parental age at childbirth and offspring's education attainment in China]. Popul. Dev. 27:48–58 (In Chinese)
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Genda Y. 2007. Jobless youths and the NEET problem in Japan. Soc. Sci. Jpn. J. 10:23–40
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Goto A, Yasumura S, Yabe J, Reich MR. 2006. Addressing Japan's fertility decline: influences of unintended pregnancy on child rearing. Reprod. Health Matters 14:191–200
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Gu H, Liu Y. 2012. [The effect of maternal labor force participation on child health in rural China]. Popul. Econ. 2012:8–12 (In Chinese)
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Gung Y. 2008. [Why I decided to be a pregnant bride? The phenomenon of premarital pregnancy in Taiwan] Master's Thesis, Nanhua Univ. Taiwan: (In Chinese)
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Guo Y. 2021. [Changing effects of educational attainment on divorce in China]. Popul. Res. 45:96–109 (In Chinese)
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Han W, Huang C, Garfinkel I 2003. The importance of family structure and family income on family's educational expenditure and children's college attendance. J. Fam. Issues 24:753–86
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Hannum E, Ishida H, Park H, Tam T. 2019. Education in East Asian societies: postwar expansion and the evolution of inequality. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 45:625–47
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Hertog E. 2008. “The worst abuse against a child is the absence of a parent”: how Japanese unwed mothers evaluate their decision to have a child outside wedlock. Jpn. Forum 20:193–217
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Hertog E, Iwasawa M. 2011. Marriage, abortion, or unwed motherhood? How women evaluate alternative solutions to premarital pregnancies in Japan and the United States. J. Fam. Issues 32:1674–99
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Hirao K. 2007. Contradictions in maternal roles in contemporary Japan. Working and Mothering in Asia: Images, Ideologies and Identities TW Devasahayam, BSA Yeoh 51–83. Singapore: NUS Press
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Hofferth SL, Reid L. 2002. Early childbearing and children's achievement and behavior over time. Perspect. Sex Reprod. Health 34:41–49
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Hogendoorn B, Leopold T, Bol T 2020. Divorce and diverging poverty rates: a risk-and-vulnerability approach. J. Marriage Fam. 82:1089–109
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Hong Y. 2006. Marital decision-making and the timing of first birth in rural China before the 1990s. Popul. Stud. 60:329–41
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Huh SY. 2017. [Exploratory study on the expansion of family policies and women's employment in different classes]. J. Soc. Sci. 20:117–36 (In Korean)
    [Google Scholar]
  41. IPSS (Natl. Inst. Popul. Soc. Secur. Res.) 2020. [The 6th National Survey on Family in Japan, 2018] Tokyo: Natl. Inst. Popul. Soc. Secur. Res. (In Japanese)
     [Google Scholar]
  42. IPSS (Natl. Inst. Popul. Soc. Secur. Res.) 2022. [Population statistics] Database, Natl. Inst. Popul. Soc. Secur. Res. Tokyo: . https://www.ipss.go.jp/index.asp (In Japanese)
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Ishii-Kuntz M. 2013. Work environment and Japanese fathers’ involvement in child care. J. Fam. Issues 34:250–69
     [Google Scholar]
  44. Ishii-Kuntz M. 2015. Fatherhood in Asian contexts. Routledge Handbook of Families in Asia S Quah 161–74. New York: Routledge
     [Google Scholar]
  45. Iwasawa M. 2017. [Nonmarital childbearing and coresidence with father in 2000s Japan, socioeconomic circumstances and diversity]. J. Popul. Stud. 53:47–61 (In Japanese)
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Iwasawa M. 2019. [Marriage, divorce and remarriage in Japan: trends, causes and social implications (2013–2017)]. J. Soc. Sec. Res. 4:142–45 (In Japanese)
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Iwasawa M, Kamata K. 2014. Marriage preceded by pregnancy and women's employment. Japan Labor Rev 11:21–51
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Iwasawa M, Mita F. 2008. [Circumstances in which single mother families originate as seen through a longitudinal survey of children born in the 21st century. MHLW Research Grant “Longitudinal Survey Research” 2006–2007 General Research Report] R Kaneko 165–88. Tokyo: Minist. Health Labour Welf. Jpn. (In Japanese)
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Jao Y, Li JA. 2014. Trends in the employment of married mothers of preschool-aged children in Taiwan. Chin. Sociol. Rev. 44:5–26
     [Google Scholar]
  50. Jarvis JA, Gibby AL, Dufur MJ, Pribesh S. 2020. Family structure and child well-being in a non-Western context: the role of parent-child relations and parental conflict in South Korea. Popul. Res. Policy Rev. 39:439–64
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Jeon H, Lim H. 2016. [The effects of maternal employment and occupational prestige on academic achievement among middle school students: focusing on the mediating and interaction by parental involvement and expenditure on shadow education]. Korean J. Sociol. Educ. 26:141–69 (In Korean)
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Jin S, Kang EN, Jang Y. 2011. [A longitudinal study on the effects of the social service continuity on married women's labor force participation and employment patterns: using a mixed-effects multinominal logistic regression model]. Health Soc. Welf. Rev. 31:38–69 (In Korean)
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Jones GW. 2019. Ultra-low fertility in East Asia: policy responses and challenges. Asian Popul. Stud. 15:131–49
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Kan M, Hertog E. 2017. Domestic division of labour and fertility preference in China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Demogr. Res. 36:557–88
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Kan M, Zhou M, Kolpashnikova K, Hertog E, Yoda S, Jun J. 2022. Revisiting the gender revolution: time on paid work, domestic work, and total work in East Asian and Western societies 1985–2016. Gend. Soc. 36:368–96
     [Google Scholar]
  56. Kao TY. 2021. Outsourcing mothering for schooling: why Taiwanese middle-class mothers hire tutors. Women's Stud. Int. Forum 89:102535
     [Google Scholar]
  57. Kato T, Yorifuji T, Yamakawa M, Inoue S, Doi H et al. 2017. Association of maternal age with child health: a Japanese longitudinal study. PLOS ONE 12:e0172544
     [Google Scholar]
  58. Kim HE, Song IG, Chung SH, Choi YS, Bae CW. 2019. Trends in birth weight and the incidence of low birth weight and advanced maternal age in Korea between 1993 and 2016. J. Korean Med. Sci. 34:e34
     [Google Scholar]
  59. Kim I. 2020. [Family Types and Human Capital Formation in Childhood] Sejong, Korea: Korea Dev. Inst. (In Korean)
     [Google Scholar]
  60. Kim JE, Lee JY, Lee SH. 2018. Single mothers’ experiences with pregnancy and child rearing in Korea: discrepancy between social services/policies and single mothers’ needs. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 15:955
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Kim K. 2017a. The changing role of employment status in marriage formation among young Korean adults. Demogr. Res. 36:145–72
     [Google Scholar]
  62. Kim K. 2017b. Trends and determinants of premarital conception: love in Korea. Int. J. Jpn. Sociol. 26:23–38
     [Google Scholar]
  63. Kim NN. 2012. [Income concentration in Korea, 1976–2010: evidence from income tax statistics]. Econ. Anal. 18:75–114 (In Korean)
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Kim Y, Lee J. 2018. Bridal pregnancy and women's educational attainment in South Korea, 1970–2009. Hist. Fam. 23:426–45
     [Google Scholar]
  65. Kim YN, Choi DW, Kim DS, Park EC, Kwon JY. 2021. Maternal age and risk of early neonatal mortality: a national cohort study. Sci. Rep. 11:814
     [Google Scholar]
  66. KOSIS (Korean Stat. Inf. Serv.) 2021. Population census Database, Statistics Korea, Daejeon South Korea: https://kosis.kr/eng/
  67. Kuo CP, Lee SH, Wu WY, Liao WC, Lin SJ, Lee MC. 2010. Birth outcomes and risk factors in adolescent pregnancies: results of a Taiwanese national survey. Pediatr. Int. 52:447–52
     [Google Scholar]
  68. Kyozuka H, Fujimori K, Hosoya M, Yasumura S, Yokoyama T et al. 2018. The effect of maternal age at the first childbirth on gestational age and birth weight: the Japan Environment and Children's Study (JECS). J. Epidemiol. 29:187–91
     [Google Scholar]
  69. Lee J, Park JS, Jun JK, Shin SH, Ko Y, Park SM. 2014. The associations between bridal pregnancy and obstetric outcomes among live births in Korea: population-based study. PLOS ONE 9:e103178
     [Google Scholar]
  70. Lee K. 2019. Koreans become more skeptical about upward social mobility. The Korea Times Nov. 25. https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/biz/2019/11/367_279308.html
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Lee Y, Bumpass L. 2008. Socioeconomic determinants of divorce/separation in South Korea: a focus on wife's current and desired employment characteristics. Dev. Soc. 37:117–39
     [Google Scholar]
  72. Lesthaeghe R. 2020. The second demographic transition, 1986–2020: sub-replacement fertility and rising cohabitation—a global update. Genus 76:10
     [Google Scholar]
  73. Li D, Tian S. 2017. [Patterns and determinates of premarital pregnancy in China]. Popul. Res. 41:87–100 (In Chinese)
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Li Y, Chang T. 2005. Maternal demographic and psychosocial factors associated with low birth weight in eastern Taiwan. Kaohsiung J. Med. Sci. 21:502–10
     [Google Scholar]
  75. Lim JW. 2011. The changing trends in live birth statistics in Korea, 1970 to 2010. Korean J. Pediatr. 54:429–35
     [Google Scholar]
  76. Lim S, Raymo JM. 2014. Nonstandard work and educational differentials in married women's employment in Japan: patterns of continuity and change. Int. J. Sociol. 44:84–107
     [Google Scholar]
  77. Liu A, Xie Y. 2015. Influences of monetary and non-monetary family resources on children's development in verbal ability in China. Res. Soc. Stratif. Mobil. 40:59–70
     [Google Scholar]
  78. Ma L, Turunen J, Rizzi E. 2018. Divorce Chinese style. J. Marriage Fam. 80:1287–97
     [Google Scholar]
  79. McLanahan S. 2004. Diverging destinies: how children are faring under the second demographic transition. Demography 41:607–27
     [Google Scholar]
  80. McLanahan S, Jacobsen W 2015. Diverging destinies revisited. Families in an Era of Increasing Inequality: Diverging Destinies PR Amato, A Booth, SM McHale, J Van Hook 3–24. New York: Springer
     [Google Scholar]
  81. Minist. Health Labour Welf. Jpn 2021. Handbook of Health and Welfare Statistics Tokyo: Minist. Health Labour Welf. Jpn. https://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/database/db-hh/
  82. Mu Z, Tian FF. 2022. The changing patterns and determinants of stay-at-home motherhood in urban China, 1982 to 2015. J. Comp. Fam. Stud. 53:48–75
     [Google Scholar]
  83. Nagase N. 2018. Has Abe's womenomics worked?. Asian Econ. Policy Rev. 13:68–101
     [Google Scholar]
  84. Ng KU, Chen CJ. 2018. Married mothers’ employment in East Asian countries: a comparison of China, Taiwan, South Korea, and Japan. Comp. Sociol. 17:738–58
     [Google Scholar]
  85. Niu J, Qi Y. 2020. The educational differential in fertility in transitional China. Demogr. Res. 42:657–88
     [Google Scholar]
  86. Nonoyama-Tarumi Y. 2017. Educational achievement of children from single-mother and single-father families: the case of Japan. J. Marriage Fam. 79:915–31
     [Google Scholar]
  87. OECD (Organ. Econ. Co-op. Dev.) 2019. Society at a Glance: Asia/Pacific 2019 Paris: OECD
  88. OECD (Organ. Econ. Co-op. Dev.) 2022a. OECD family database Database, Organ. Econ. Co-op. Dev. Paris: https://www.oecd.org/els/family/database.htm
  89. OECD (Organ. Econ. Co-op. Dev.) 2022b. OECD income (IDD) and wealth (WDD) distribution databases Database, Organ. Econ. Co-op. Dev. Paris: https://www.oecd.org/social/income-distribution-database.htm
  90. Oh E 2020. The strength of information: maternal education and childbearing in urban Korea. Korean Families Yesterday and Today H Park, H Woo 43–70. Ann Arbor, MI: Univ. Mich. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  91. Park H. 2007. Single parenthood and children's reading performance in Asia. J. Marriage Fam. 69:863–77
     [Google Scholar]
  92. Park H. 2008. Effects of single parenthood on educational aspiration and student disengagement in Korea. Demogr. Res. 18:377–408
     [Google Scholar]
  93. Park H. 2013. Re-evaluating Education in Japan and Korea: Demystifying Stereotypes New York: Routledge
  94. Park H. 2021. Diverging gaps in childcare time by parental education in South Korea. Demogr. Res. 44:143–56
     [Google Scholar]
  95. Park H, Choi J, Jo H 2016. Living arrangements of single parents and their children in South Korea. Marriage Fam. Rev. 52:89–109
     [Google Scholar]
  96. Park H, Lee JK, Jo I 2013. Changing relationships between education and marriage among Korean women. Korean J. Sociol. 47:51–76
     [Google Scholar]
  97. Park H, Raymo JM. 2013. Divorce in Korea: trends and educational differentials. J. Marriage Fam. 75:110–26
     [Google Scholar]
  98. Park SJ, Abelmann N. 2004. Class and cosmopolitan striving: mothers’ management of English education in South Korea. Anthropol. Q. 77:645–72
     [Google Scholar]
  99. Piotrowski M, Tong Y. 2016. Education and fertility decline in China during transitional times: a cohort approach. Soc. Sci. Res. 55:94–110
     [Google Scholar]
  100. Piotrowski M, Yoshida A, Johnson L, Wolford R 2019. Gender role attitudes: An examination of cohort effects in Japan. J. Marriage Fam. 81:863–84
     [Google Scholar]
  101. Popul. Ref. Bur 2021. World population data sheet Data Sheet, Popul. Ref. Bur. Washington, DC: https://interactives.prb.org/2021-wpds/
  102. Qian Y, Jin Y 2020. Premarital pregnancy in China: cohort trends and educational gradients. Stud. Fam. Plan. 51:273–91
     [Google Scholar]
  103. Raymo JM. 2003. Educational attainment and the transition to first marriage among Japanese women. Demography 40:83–103
     [Google Scholar]
  104. Raymo JM, Fukuda S, Iwasawa M. 2013. Educational differences in divorce in Japan. Demogr. Res. 28:177–206
     [Google Scholar]
  105. Raymo JM, Iwasawa M. 2008. Bridal pregnancy and spouse pairing patterns in Japan. J. Marriage Fam. 70:847–60
     [Google Scholar]
  106. Raymo JM, Iwasawa M. 2016. Diverging Destinies: The Japanese Case New York: Springer
  107. Raymo JM, Iwasawa M, Bumpass L. 2004. Marital dissolution in Japan: recent trends and patterns. Demogr. Res. 11:395–420
     [Google Scholar]
  108. Raymo JM, Iwasawa M, Bumpass L. 2009. Cohabitation and family formation in Japan. Demography 46:785–803
     [Google Scholar]
  109. Raymo JM, Musick K, Iwasawa M. 2015a. Gender equity, opportunity costs of parenthood, and educational differences in unintended first births: insights from Japan. Popul. Res. Policy Rev. 34:179–99
     [Google Scholar]
  110. Raymo JM, Park H. 2021. Marriage decline in Korea: changing composition of the domestic marriage market and growth in international marriage. Demography 57:171–194
     [Google Scholar]
  111. Raymo JM, Park H, Iwasawa M, Zhou Y. 2014. Single motherhood, living arrangements, and time with children in Japan. J. Marriage Fam. 76:843–61
     [Google Scholar]
  112. Raymo JM, Park H, Xie Y, Yeung WJ. 2015b. Marriage and family in East Asia: continuity and change. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 41:471–92
     [Google Scholar]
  113. Raymo JM, Wang J. 2018. Maternal age and children's well-being in Japan Paper presented at the Population Association of America Annual Meeting Denver: April 26–28
  114. Schwartz CR, Mare RD. 2005. Trends in educational assortative marriage from 1940 to 2003. Demography 42:621–46
     [Google Scholar]
  115. Seo JW, Ki E, Koh S 2021. [Trends in the household labor time of Korean adults by gender and generation over the last 20 years (1999–2019)]. J. Fam. Res. Manag. Policy Rev. 25:53–78 (In Korean)
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Seth MJ. 2002. Education Fever: Society, Politics, and the Pursuit of Schooling in South Korea Honolulu: Univ. Hawaiʻi Press
  117. Shin K-Y. 2013. Economic crisis, neoliberal reforms, and the rise of precarious work in South Korea. Am. Behav. Sci. 57:335–53
     [Google Scholar]
  118. Shirahase S. 2014. Social Inequality in Japan New York: Routledge
  119. Shirahase S, Raymo JM. 2014. Single mothers and poverty in Japan: the role of intergenerational coresidence. Soc. Forces 93:545–69
     [Google Scholar]
  120. Song J, Zhou Y. 2016. [Unintentional injuries of children in China: effects of mother's characteristics and of mother as main caregiver]. Popul. Res. 40:20–32 (In Chinese)
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Su LP, Kubricht B, Miller R. 2017. The influence of father involvement in adolescents’ overall development in Taiwan. J. Adolesc. 59:35–44
     [Google Scholar]
  122. Sun A, Zhang C, Hu X. 2019. Boys, girls, and grandparents: the impact of the sex of preschool-aged children on family living arrangements and maternal labor supply. Demography 56:813–33
     [Google Scholar]
  123. Sun S, Chen F. 2017. Women's employment trajectories during early adulthood in urban China: a cohort comparison. Soc. Sci. Res. 68:43–58
     [Google Scholar]
  124. Tai T, Yi C, Liu C 2019. Early marriage in Taiwan: evidence from panel data. J. Fam. Issues 40:1989–2014
     [Google Scholar]
  125. Tan J. 2022. Educational differentials on the transition to first birth in South Korea. Soc. Sci. Res. 105:102728
     [Google Scholar]
  126. Tian X, Wang H. 2019. The impact of having one parent absent on children's food consumption and nutrition in China. Nutrients 11:3077
     [Google Scholar]
  127. Tschida RK. 2016. Unwed mothers experience limited reproductive choices in South Korea Work. Pap., Humphrey Sch. Public Aff., Univ. Minn. Minneapolis, MN: https://intercountryadopteevoices.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/PA5601-Final-Paper_RTschida_122016.pdf
  128. Tsuya NO, Bumpass LL, Choe MK, Rindfuss RR. 2005. Is the gender division of labour changing in Japan?. Asian Popul. Stud. 1:47–67
     [Google Scholar]
  129. Wang G, Luan H. 2018. Spatial-temporal pattern and affecting mechanism on maltreatment risk of single-parent girls in central and western area of China. Nankai J 2:88–99
     [Google Scholar]
  130. Wang J. 2022. Nonstandard Employment and Unequal Life Chances: Insights from Diverse Contexts Doctoral Diss., Univ. Wisconsin-Madison Madison, WI:
  131. Watanabe E, Lee JS, Kawakubo K. 2011. Associations of maternal employment and three-generation families with pre-school children's overweight and obesity in Japan. Int. J. Obes. 35:945–52
     [Google Scholar]
  132. World Econ. Forum 2022. Global Gender Gap Report 2022 Geneva: World Econ. Forum. https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2022.pdf
  133. Wu M, Yi C. 2003. A marriage is more than a marriage: the impact of familial factors on marital satisfaction. J. Popul. Stud. 26:71–95
     [Google Scholar]
  134. Xie Y, Zhou X. 2014. Income inequality in today's China. PNAS 111:6928–33
     [Google Scholar]
  135. Xu Q, Wang J. 2019. [Father involvement and its impacts on youth development in China]. J. Sociol. Dev. 6:68–85 (In Chinese)
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Xu Q, Yeung WJ. 2013. Hoping for a phoenix: Shanghai fathers and their daughters. J. Fam. Issues 34:182–207
     [Google Scholar]
  137. Xu Q, Yu J, Qiu Z 2015. The impact of children on divorce risk. J. Chin. Sociol. 2:1
     [Google Scholar]
  138. Yao Y, Cheng C. 2019. [Is late childbirth advantageous to the offspring's development?]. Youth Stud 428:12–24 (In Chinese)
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Yoo SH. 2014. Educational differentials in cohort fertility during the fertility transition in South Korea. Demogr. Res. 30:1463–94
     [Google Scholar]
  140. Yoon JY. 2010. [The effects of maternal employment on children's educational outcomes]. J. Women Econ. 7:67–93 (In Korean)
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Yoon MH, Lee JY. 2002. [Characteristics of teenage unwed mothers in Korea]. Korean J. Child Stud. 23:149–69 (In Korean)
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Yu J. 2022. [What makes a family: marriage and fertility in China during the second demographic transition]. J. Chin. Women's Stud. 2022:47–69 (In Chinese)
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Yu J, Xie Y. 2021. Recent trends in the Chinese family.. Demogr. Res. 44:595–608
     [Google Scholar]
  144. Yu J, Xie Y. 2022. Is there a Chinese pattern of the second demographic transition?. China Popul. Dev. Stud. 6:237–66
     [Google Scholar]
  145. Yu W. 2005. Changes in women's postmarital employment in Japan and Taiwan. Demography 42:693–717
     [Google Scholar]
  146. Yu W. 2006. National contexts and dynamics of married women's employment reentry: the cases of Japan and Taiwan. Sociol. Q. 47:215–43
     [Google Scholar]
  147. Yu W. 2009. Gendered Trajectories: Women, Work, and Social Change in Japan and Taiwan Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
  148. Yu W, Su K, Chiu C. 2012. Sibship characteristics and transition to first marriage in Taiwan: explaining gender asymmetries. Popul. Res. Policy Rev. 31:609–36
     [Google Scholar]
  149. Zhang C. 2017. [The impact of divorce on children's development among young contemporary Chinese parents]. China Youth Stud. 2017:5–16 (In Chinese)
    [Google Scholar]
  150. Zhang C. 2020. [The long-term influence of marital breakdown in divorced families upon their children's socioeconomic achievements in China]. J. Peking Univ. 57:128–39 (In Chinese)
    [Google Scholar]
  151. Zhou H, Lv B, Guo X, Liu C, Qi B et al. 2017. The relation between maternal work hours and primary school students’ affect in China: the role of the frequency of mother-child communication (FMCC) and maternal education. Front. Psychol. 8:1777
     [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-020321-032642
Loading
Diverging Destinies in East Asia
Annual Review of Sociology 49, 443 (2023); https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-020321-032642
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-020321-032642
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-020321-032642
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error